Legal Theory Blog: Legal Theory Lexicon: Positive and Normative ...

Introduction

One of the most fundamental distinctions in legal theory is that between "positive legal theory" and "normative legal theory." This post provides a very brief introduction to the distinction, aimed at law students (especially first years) with an interest in legal theory.

The core idea of the distinction between positive and normative legal theory is simple:

• Positive?legal theory seeks to explain?what?the law is and?why?it is that way, and?how?laws affect the world, whereas?
• Pormative?legal theories tell us what the law?ought?to be.

Thus, a positive theory of tort law might seek to explain what causal forces have produced the existing principles of tort law, whereas a normative theory of tort law would tell us what rules of tort liability would be best, right, or justifiable. Or more simply:?positive?legal theories are aboutfacts?and?normative?legal theories are about?values. ?(This simple formulations assumes that facts and values are mutually exclusive, but that may not be correct.)

Positive Legal Theory

Sometimes, the notion of?positive legal theory?is presented in an oversimplified way--as if there were a single, well-defined type of theory that counted as positive. In fact, the phrase "positive legal theory" is used in a variety of ways. The one thing that positive legal theories have in common is that they are?not?normative. Nonetheless, there are three characteristic type of positive legal theory that can be identified:

Positive Legal Theory Type 1: Doctrinal Theories--The first kind of legal theory that is called "positive" is quite simply a theory of what the content of a particular field of legal doctrine?is. Thus, a theory of the freedom of speech might simply seek to explain the shape of existing first amendment doctrine. Or a theory of hearsay rule might seek to provide an account of the rule and exceptions that explains and accurately predicts particular applications of the rule. Doctrinal legal theories are responsive to questions like, "What are the principles that shape this area of the law?" or "Can these cases be explained by some underlying theory?" ?What I am calling a "doctrinal theory" is also sometimes called a "descriptive theory."

Positive Legal Theory Type 2: Explanatory Theories--The second kind of legal theory to which the label "positive" is applied are explanatory theories--theories about why the law is the way it is. For example, a very simple Marxist theory might state that the content of the law can best be explained by the interests of the ruling class. Some legal economists have tried to argue that common-law rules are efficient, because there is "evolutionary pressure" on inefficient legal rules. ?What I am calling an "explanatory theory" is also sometimes called a "causal theory."

Positive Legal Theory Type 3: Effects Theories--The third kind of legal theories that are referred to as "positive" are theories about the consequences that will be produced by a given regime of legal rules. This is the sense of "positive theory" that is most frequently invoked by legal economists. The question --"What effects will a strict liability regime (as opposed to a negligence) regime have on the manufacturers of consumer products?"--can be answered by a legal theory that is positive in the sense that it predicts behavior but does not explicitly evaluate the desirability of the rule. ?What I am calling an "effects theory" is also sometimes called a "predictive theory."

Normative Legal Theory

Normative legal theories, on the other hand, are by their nature?evaluative. Thus, a normative theory of products liability law would take a stand on the question whether negligence or strict liability is the?better rule. Normative legal theories tend to be entwined with more general normative theories, e.g. moral or political theories, although this is not necessarily the case. TheLegal Theory Lexicon?already includes entries on?deontology,?utilitarianism, and?virtue ethics--three of the most important general normative theories that have had an influence on the law. There are three other distinctions that are important to understanding the general idea of a normative legal theory:

Ideal versus Nonideal Theory?Some normative legal theories are "ideal"--that is, they are theories about what the best legal rule would be in the world in which everything was politically possible, the law could be adequately enforced, and other legal rules that interact with the subject of the theory could be adjusted to produce the best overall system. Other normative legal theories are "nonideal"--that is, they are theories that assume a variety of constraints on the choice of legal rules. For example, a nonideal theory might take into account political feasibility or it might take into account the possibility that the system would not provide an optimal level of enforcement for the rule that would otherwise be best. TheLegal Theory Lexicon?entry on?second best?explores these ideas in greater detail.

Justificatory Theories and Critical Theories?Normative legal theories also vary in their "attitude" towards the status quo. You are likely to encounter normative legal theories that start with the question, "What is the best justification that be given for such and such a legal rule?" These justificatory theories have a limited purpose. ?Dworkin's theory--"law as integrity"--is an example of a justificatory theory: Dworkin offers theories that "fit and justify" existing law. ?Such justificatory theories do not address the ultimate question, "What is the best legal rule?" On the other hand, many legal theories have the opposite purpose--the critique of existing legal doctrine. Thus, a critical theory might enumerate all of the criticisms that could be made of an existing legal rule--even though some of the criticisms may rest on inconsistent premises.

Normative Legal Theories, Political Philosophy, and Comprehensive Moral Theories?Another important issue concerns the relationship of normative legal theory to other normative theories, especially political philosophy, ethics, and comprehensive moral theories.? Normative political philosphy asks questions about the normative justification for the state and the normative principles that establish the ends of and limits on the content of the law.? The term ethics can be defined in various ways--but for our purposes on this , ethics might be seen as concerned with the morality of individual action outside the political sphere.? A comprehensive moral theory might encompass both ethics and normative political philosophy.? Normative legal theories have as their domain the normative evaluation of legal substance and procedure.? Normative theories about the law as a whole might be called "general normative jurisprudence."? There can also be normative theories of particular legal domains--"normative constitutional theory," "normative tort theory," and so forth.

One picture of this relationship normative legal theory, on the one hand, and moral and political philosophy, on the other, might be called "top-down."? That is, we might start with a comprehensive moral doctrine (such as utilitarianism or Kant's version of deontology).? Using the method of deduction, we might try to deduce the principles of political philosophy and ethics from a comprehensive moral theory, and the principles of normative legal theory might in turn be deduced from those of political philosophy and ethics.? The top-down approach is exemplified by some consequentialists, who argue for a comprehensive moral doctrine such as welfarism or utilitarianism and then derive normative justifications or criticisms from the comprehensive doctrine and facts about which legal rules will result in what consequences.

Another possibility is that normative legal theory is relatively independent of ethics and political philosophy.? It is at least conceivable that one might believe that the realm of interpersonal ethics is governed by a different set of principles and theories than is the law.? For example, one might espouse deontological ethics, but believe that the laws should (for the most part) be aimed at maximizing utility.

The Intersection of Positive and Normative Theory

So far, we have been assuming a fairly sharp distinction between positive and normative legal theory. And for many purposes, assuming that there is a bright line that separates normative and descriptive legal theory is a good working hypothesis. Even assuming there is such a bright line, however, there are relationships between positive and normative legal theories.

Positive Theory in the Service of Normative Theory--One relationship is clear and straightforward. Many normative theories underdetermine what the legal rules should be in the absence of substantial information about the effects of the rules. This is most obvious in the case of utilitarian theories, where information about consequences does all the real work of determining which legal rule is best. For normative theories like utilitarianism, positive theory performs an essential service. Without a positive account of the effects of a given rule choice, utilitarianism has nothing to say about what rule is best.

Positive Theory as a Constraint on Normative Theory--Another relatively noncontroversial relationship between positive and normative legal theories arises when a positive theory that explains?why?the law has the shape that it does, is taken as imposing a constraint on normative theory. For example, public choice theory makes certain predictions about how legislatures will act in response to various incentives. Some legal rules that might be justified by ideal normative legal theory may be considered "unrealistic" in light of positive theory. In cases like this, positive legal theory provides constraints that limit the options available to normative theory.

Interpretivism and "Law as Integrity"--There is another, more controversial, way that positive and normative legal theory can interact. Ronald Dworkin's theory of law, "law as integrity," attempts to combine the aims of positive doctrinal theory and normative theory. The idea is that a legal theory should both?fit?and?justify?the existing legal landscape. Thus, a Dworkinian theory of the freedom of speech would need to both?fit?the contours of the Supreme Court's decisions and?justify?those decisions. Of those interpretations of free speech doctrine that?fit?the legal topography, Dworkin maintains that judges should select that interpretation that makes the existing law, "the best that it can be." Dworkin's view of legal theory blurs the line between positive and normative legal theory--essentially combining the enterprises that I have called positive doctrinal theory and justificatory normative theory. As you might imagine, this is hugely controversial--although that is a topic for another post.

Conclusion

The distinction between positive and normative legal theories is fundamental, but once you have the terminology down, it is usually easy to apply. The tricky part comes when you are confronted with theories like Dworkin's that blur the lines between the positive and the normative. When you do, my advice is that you stay on your toes. A common mistake is to try to force interpretivist theories into either the positive or the normative. Although there may be deep reasons of legal theory that would justify such a forcing move, it will rarely be productive to start there. A better strategy is to try to understand such hybrid theories from the inside first. When you are constructing your own theories, it is always important to be sure you know whether your theory is positive, normative, or has elements of both. One of the oft-repeated questions that law professors ask of entry-level candidates giving job talks (or ambitious students writing papers) is whether their theory is positive or normative. Be sure you know the answer before the question is asked!

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Bibliography

(This entry was last revised on January 29, 2012.)

Source: http://lsolum.typepad.com/legaltheory/2012/01/legal-theory-lexicon-positive-and-normative-legal-theory.html

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Metro apologizes for last night's communications breakdown, delays ...

(Photo: Jay Westcott)

Why didn't Metro let riders know what was happening last night until hours and afters after the system malfunctioned? WMATA doesn't have any one reasonable excuse. The transit agency apologizes, hopes you'll forgive, and promises to do better.

"That failure should not have happened," WMATA chief spokesperson Dan Stessel said, who despite that communication failure only received three hours of sleep last night. "We should have been tweeting independently of the systems."

?Riders strongly agreed as dozens lashed out about the silence. Why were all voices MIA? If Stessel wasn't awake and seeing these tweets, why wasn't some other individual doing so? No alternative communications plan appeared to exist or emanate independently from Metro's control center.

When Metro broke last night, it broke hard. Power throughout much of the system failed due to a piece of equipment called the switch, which monitors the power feed to the facility, according to Stessel. The "partial power failure" of these elements, which comprise the rail and bus control facilities in Landover, Maryland, caused the WMATA website to fail, the alerts system to cease, as did the PIDs, and train operators on the Red, Orange and Blue lines to hold for at least 15 minutes, WMATA reports, though some riders suggest far longer waits. Train operators had no idea what was happening, apparently. Radio and signals continued to operate ... but the control center relied on computers to coordinate all the data and did suffer from the breakdown. "Driver says he doesn't have any communications," one person tweeted (see all the frenzied reactions from late last night, from 11 p.m. till about 1 a.m., here). Stessel began responding to press inquiries at 3:30 a.m. and released a press release on the incident, in which "Metro apologizes for the inconvenience" and stated that the power outage lasted about 15 minutes. "Radio and signal systems are independent and remained online, but desktop consoles and computer systems were affected," he told me in the late a.m. hours last night. "Preliminarily, the cause appears to be linked to a particular UPS [uninterruptible power supply]." But given the outage and the single-tracking, Stessel believes the riders who speak of long, miserable rides on the system.

"I absolutely believe every customer who says they were waiting an hour or nearly an hour on the platforms," Stessel told me. Even before the outage, he said, the headway on parts of the Orange Line was 30 to 35 minutes thanks to single-tracking.

Stessel has spent the first hours of today assembling his limited team and reviewing exactly what happened and coordinating how to prevent the failure in the future. The system that broke was "the nexus of all our different abilities to power the facility," he said, but there's still no clear understanding of why it failed. This problem has never occurred so far since he came to WMATA. These same sets of problems did happen in 2009, I found, but Stessel assures me that it's "not the same equipment, not the same building" as what happened last night. Back then, the control center was located in the Jackson Graham Building, where now only the backup is locate. The new site is in Landover. But the symptoms were the same. And last night, riders had no idea why such long delays, why such communication failures, or what was happening. The train operators themselves apparently had no idea either and as some people tweeted, left the trains to make sure the tracks head were safe.

Did they? Stessel has "no specific reports of train operators leaving the cabin" though acknowledges some "might have [had] to do that" out of caution. Jackie Jeter, president of Amalgamated Local 689, a union that represents thousands of WMATA employees, also heard no reports regarding the confusion last night though adds that train operators have the training to leave and monitor the tracks if it's necessary.

As for the lack of tweeting and rider outreach, Stessel acknowledges the miss. Normally, he emphasized, someone is monitoring what's happening on Twitter and ensuring no major problems are breaking out but notes that didn't happen last night. But Stessel has lacked a full team this week, with one person out, and it's been an intense few days, with the Red Line delays yesterday morning, the Metro board meetings, and so on. He stressed the communications team's "review underway" of how they handled the situation to prevent this from happening again. Even automated Twitter updates are tied to the failure of the control center and failed to send in the height of the confusion. He hopes the addition of new communications staff members next month will help WMATA develop a better strategy for watching the riders. Before 9 a.m. this morning, the @WMATA Twitter account tweeted its own mea culpa in four 140-character updates:

Many of you have asked about why we didn't Tweet during last night's disruption. Answer follows. Due to the nature of last night's problem, the usual channels for notifying us were disrupted... We're working to revise processes to ensure that, in future event this, we're able to get actionable info to customers thru soc channels. We know you've come to depend on Twitter for info from us, and rest assured, we will ensure that it is used to its potential going forward.

Discussions of how to improve will be "ongoing," according to Metro, but Stessel assures me that Metro has a new alerts system for buses on the way as well as other improvements that will make the alerts system, which includes the automated status updates sent to Twitter, "completely independent" of Metro's system. Last night's debacle is hopefully the conclusion of a rocky first month of 2012 for Metro.

"We don't profess to have all the answers," Stessel told me, "and we'll continue to improve."

Source: http://www.tbd.com/blogs/tbd-on-foot/2012/01/metro-apologizes-for-last-night-s-communications-breakdown-delays-14382.html

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Boxx Electric Bike Takes Its Design Stylings From IKEA's Packaging [Bikes]

The limited capacity of batteries has made aerodynamics particularly important for extending the range of electric vehicles. So why have the makers of the Boxx electric bike completely thrown those principles out the window with their box on wheels? More »

Source: http://feeds.gawker.com/~r/gizmodo/full/~3/Q0nR1cvrQGk/boxx-electric-bike-takes-its-design-stylings-from-ikeas-packaging

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Kepler telescope team finds 11 new solar systems

By Irene Klotz

CAPE CANAVERAL, Florida | Thu Jan 26, 2012 5:45pm EST

CAPE CANAVERAL, Florida (Reuters) - NASA's planet-hunting Kepler space telescope has found 11 new planetary systems, including one with five planets all orbiting closer to their parent star than Mercury circles the Sun, scientists said on Thursday.

The discoveries boost the list of confirmed extra-solar planets to 729, including 60 credited to the Kepler team. The telescope, launched in space in March 2009, can detect slight but regular dips in the amount of light coming from stars. Scientists can then determine if the changes are caused by orbiting planets passing by, relative to Kepler's view.

Kepler scientists have another 2,300 candidate planets awaiting additional confirmation.

None of the newly discovered planetary systems are like our solar system, though Kepler-33, a star that is older and bigger than the Sun, comes close in terms of sheer numbers. It has five planets, compared to our solar system's eight, but the quintet all fly closer to their parent star than Mercury orbits the Sun.

The planets range in size from about 1.5 times the diameter of Earth to five times Earth's diameter. Scientists have not yet determined if any are solid rocky bodies like Earth, Venus, Mars and Mercury or if they are filled with gas like Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.

The Kepler team previously found one star with six confirmed planets and a second system with five planets, said planetary scientist Jack Lissauer, with NASA's Ames Research Center in Moffett Field, California.

Nine of the new systems contain two planets and one has three, bringing the total number of newly discovered planets to 26. All are closer to their host stars than Venus is to the Sun.

"This has tripled the number of stars which we know have more than one transiting planet, so that's the big deal here," Lissauer told Reuters.

"We're starting to think in terms of planetary systems as opposed to just planets: Do they all tend to have similar sizes? What's the spacing? Is the solar system unusual in those regards?" he said.

Kepler is monitoring more than 150,000 stars in the constellations Cygnus and Lyra.

The research is published in four different papers in Astrophysical Journal and the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.

(Reporting By Irene Klotz; Editing by Jane Sutton and Sandra Maler)

Source: http://feeds.reuters.com/~r/reuters/scienceNews/~3/9081eIRZ1AU/us-space-planets-idUSTRE80P27W20120126

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Economy grew 2.8 pct. in Q4, but outlook is hazy (AP)

WASHINGTON ? The economy grew late last year at a pace that in normal times would suggest it's healthy.

But the 2.8 percent annualized growth rate in the October-December quarter ? the fastest pace since the spring of 2010 ? isn't being cheered by most economists or investors. That's because growth would need to be much stronger to sharply reduce unemployment. And signs in the data point to slower growth ahead.

For all of last year, the economy grew just 1.7 percent. That was barely more than half the growth in 2010. The outlook for all 2012 is slightly better. The Federal Reserve estimates growth of roughly 2.5 percent for the year.

Though the economy has picked up and is far stronger than during the Great Recession, unemployment is still a high 8.5 percent. Many people remain reluctant to spend more or buy homes. Many employers are still hesitant to hire.

For the final three months of 2011, Americans spent more on vehicles, and companies restocked their shelves at a robust pace. But overall growth last quarter ? and for all of last year ? was held back by the sharpest cuts in annual government spending in four decades, the Commerce Department said Friday.

Several factors are expected to exert more of an economic drag this year: Cuts in military and other federal spending. A slower pace of company restocking. Weak or flat pay increases. Sluggish growth in consumer spending.

Stocks opened lower after the government reported the growth figures at 8:30 a.m. EST. The Dow Jones industrial average was down about 53 points in late-morning trading. Broader indexes were mixed.

"Overall, the pickup in growth doesn't look half as good when you realize that most of it was due to inventory accumulation," said Paul Ashworth, an economist at Capital Economics, who expects growth to slow to below 2 percent in the first three months of this year.

In the final three months of last year, consumer spending grew at a 2 percent annual rate. That's up modestly from the third quarter. Consumer spending is important because it makes up 70 percent of economic activity.

Much of the growth was powered by a 14.8 percent surge in sales of autos and other long-lasting manufactured goods.

Incomes, which have been weak all year because of high unemployment, grew at a modest 0.8 percent annual rate. That followed two straight quarters of declining incomes. But unless pay increases pick up, consumers who have dipped into savings in recent months, may pull back.

Business restocking, which can vary widely from quarter to quarter, was the greatest contributor to growth in the October-December period. It added nearly 2 percentage points to the gross domestic product, or GDP.

Government spending at all levels fell at an annual rate of 4.6 percent in the fourth quarter and 2.1 percent for the year ? the biggest decline since 1971. Sweeping federal defense cuts at the beginning and end of 2011 were a major factor.

The economy is measured by GDP, which covers everything from haircuts to hotel bookings to jet fighter planes. Friday's estimate was the first of three for the fourth quarter.

Other data show that in some ways, the economy ended 2011 on a strong note. Companies invested more in equipment and machinery in December. The unemployment rate fell to 8.5 percent last month ? the lowest level in nearly three years ? after the sixth straight month of solid hiring.

People are buying more cars, and consumer confidence is rising. Even the depressed housing market has shown enough improvement to make some economists predict a turnaround has begun.

Ian Shepherdson, an economist at High Frequency Economics, is among the more optimistic analysts. He said he thought business investment in capital goods would be stronger and consumer spending higher this year.

Richard DeKaiser, a senior economist at Parthenon Group, expects just 2 percent annual growth in the January-March quarter. But DeKaiser says that should be the weakest quarter. He expects the economy to gain strength in each quarter and grow 2.6 percent for the entire year.

Still, many economists worry that a recession in Europe could dampen demand for U.S. manufactured goods, which would slow growth. And without more jobs and better pay, consumer spending is likely to stagnate.

The Fed signaled this week that a full recovery could take at least three more years. In response, it said it would probably not increase its benchmark interest rate until late 2014 at the earliest ? a year and a half later than it had previously said.

The central bank also slightly reduced its outlook for growth this year, from as much as 2.9 percent forecast in November down to 2.7 percent. The Fed sees unemployment falling as low as 8.2 percent this year.

Source: http://us.rd.yahoo.com/dailynews/rss/economy/*http%3A//news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20120127/ap_on_bi_ge/us_economy

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CA-CANADA Summary (Reuters)

Canadian pipeline needs aboriginal consent: chief

OTTAWA (Reuters) ? A Canadian firm seeking to build a pipeline from oil-rich Alberta to the Pacific Coast needs to obtain the consent of aboriginal bands, some of whom oppose the project, Canada's top native leader indicated on Wednesday. The comments underline the difficulties facing Enbridge Inc as it tries to push through the C$5.5 billion ($5.4 billion Northern Gateway oil pipeline, which would cross land belonging to many Indian bands, or first nations.

Canada education sector toughest job market

OTTAWA (Reuters) - Unemployed workers in Canada's educational services sector faced the toughest job market in the country in the July-September period, according to a new Statistics Canada report on Tuesday. For every 10 unemployed workers in education, there was just one vacancy, the agency's new data on job vacancies in the three-month period showed. The second worst sector was construction where the ratio was 5.1.

Canada's telecoms regulator appoints interim chief

TORONTO (Reuters) - Canada's telecoms and broadcasting regulator appointed Vice-Chairman Leonard Katz as its interim chairman on Wednesday as predecessor Konrad von Finckenstein's term ended. The Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) said in a statement that Katz will exercise the chairman's powers until the federal cabinet appoints a permanent replacement for von Finckenstein.

Rwanda genocide suspect deported from Canada

KIGALI (Reuters) - A Rwandan man charged with crimes against humanity has been deported from Canada and is due to arrive in the central African country overnight, Rwanda's justice minister said on Tuesday. Leon Mugesera, who lost a 16-year battle to stay in Canada, will face charges of inciting murder, extermination and genocide.

Pilots say Air Canada quit talks; government disagrees

CALGARY/OTTAWA (Reuters) - Air Canada pilots said on Tuesday the airline had abandoned contract talks in the hope that Ottawa would step in to resolve the dispute, but the country's largest carrier said it was awaiting the union's response to its latest offer. Canadian Labour Minister Lisa Raitt also said talks had not broken down and the federally appointed conciliator remained in contact with both parties and was available to assist with negotiations.

Ottawa sees itself as protector of oil sands benefits

VANCOUVER/CALGARY (Reuters) - Canada's government has a responsibility to make sure people can take advantage of the economic benefits Alberta's massive oil deposits can generate, the country's energy minister said on Monday as he once again decried "radicals" bent on stopping Enbridge Inc's Northern Gateway oil pipeline. As about 50 protesters demonstrated noisily outside, Joe Oliver, minister of natural resources, said in Vancouver that "environmental and other radical groups" are indiscriminately opposing any and all large industrial projects and are using Canada's regulatory system as their main battleground.

Canadian minister blasts China ahead of PM's visit

OTTAWA (Reuters) - Canada's foreign minister launched an outspoken attack on China's "abhorrent" treatment of religious minorities on Monday, just weeks before Prime Minister Stephen Harper goes to Beijing in a bid to sell more oil. John Baird's comments came as a major surprise, given Canada's right-of-center Conservative government has gradually toned down its attacks on Chinese human rights issues over the years in favor of boosting trade.

RIM's new leader raises doubts among investors

TORONTO/LONDON (Reuters) - The new leader at Research In Motion on Monday dismissed talk of drastic change at the BlackBerry maker, a declaration seized on by impatient investors who say Thorsten Heins has only 12 to 18 months to turn RIM around. Takeover talk, swirling around RIM for months, picked up steam as Heins took the helm at a once-dominant smartphone company that now struggles to compete. But RIM's shares tumbled more than 8 percent as investors wondered whether Heins could reverse RIM's decline.

Some Canada property markets likely overvalued: BoC

TORONTO (Reuters) - Some parts of the Canadian real estate market are "probably overvalued" and policymakers are monitoring to see if further steps are needed to cool it, the head of the country's central bank said in an interview broadcast on Sunday. It was the second time in recent days that Bank of Canada Governor Mark Carney voiced concern about property prices, which surged after the financial crisis as borrowing costs tumbled.

Canada set to deport Rwandan genocide suspect

OTTAWA (Reuters) - A Rwandan man charged with crimes against humanity, will be deported to his homeland as soon as possible, Canadian authorities said on Monday, ending his 16-year battle to stay in Canada. Leon Mugesera will be sent to Rwanda to face charges of inciting murder, extermination and genocide.

Source: http://us.rd.yahoo.com/dailynews/rss/energy/*http%3A//news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20120125/wl_canada_nm/canada_summary

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Paramount Movies lets you stream UltraViolet films from the cloud, for a price

Paramount became the first studio to offer UltraViolet-based movies this week, with the launch of Paramount Movies. With this new service, users can purchase a film in either digital or physical form, and automatically store a copy of it within Paramount's cloud-based digital locker. This effectively allows you to stream a film to any iOS device, though support for Android and Windows Phone remains unavailable (as does compatibility with most set-top boxes). It's all part of DECE's "buy once, play anywhere" ethos, though it should be noted that the studio's UV offerings are somewhat limited. At the moment, Paramount Movies boasts about 60 titles, all of which are available at comparatively steep prices: $20 for HD quality movies, and $13 for SD versions. Check it out for yourself at the source link below.

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Source: http://www.engadget.com/2012/01/25/paramount-movies-lets-you-stream-ultraviolet-films-from-the-clou/

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